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The toxicity of P25TiO₂NPs was evaluated in both prokaryotic (Fig. 3) and eukaryotic cells (Fig. 4). The XTT assay was chosen to measure the cell viability in bacterial cultures of MSSA, a normal skin microbiota microorganism. The reduction in the viability of samples with bare NPs is notorious, possibly due to the described ROS production from the interaction of P25TiO₂NPs with light [37]. This effect seems to be avoided when they are functionalized with vitamin B2. Also, the most concentrated vitaminB2@P25TiO₂NPs sample (0.2 mg/mL) shows up to 60% more absorbance after 6 h compared to the bare NPs (due to normal cell replication). This may indicate that the antioxidant effect of the vitamin B2 coating is greater than the oxidation damage produced by the NPs. This protective capacity could be attributed to the glutathione redox cycle and the conversion of reduced riboflavin to its oxidized form [38]. Values of cell viability greater than 100% are not rare and could be understood because the XTT assay actually measure metabolic activity when reducing the tetrazole to formazan. It is usually assumed that conversion is dependent on the number of viable cells, but it could also be related to an expected increased enzymatic activity when cells are exposed to small doses of some new substance. Further analysis showed that this effect was not the only one responsible for better cell viability of vitaminB@P25TiO₂NPs treated samples.

The EU expert panel did not identify an immediate health concern linked to TiO₂ when used as a food additive. However, due mainly to uncertainties concerning the safety of TiO₂ nanoparticles, the panel concluded that TiO₂ as a food additive (E171) could no longer be considered safe.

3. Solubility: insoluble in water.

A few non-dietary studies have reported adverse effects in the gastrointestinal tract of laboratory animals given food-grade TiO₂. However, these same effects were not seen when the same or higher doses of food-grade TiO₂ were administered in the animals' diet. Dietary studies best reflect how humans are exposed to TiO₂ from food. Thus, the Food Directorate placed the most emphasis on the results of these studies in the state of the science report.

① Coatings: The downstream demand structure of domestic and overseas titanium dioxide is similar. Coatings are the largest application fields, accounting for 61% of the consumption. Among the four components of paint products, namely resin, pigments and fillers, solvents and additives, titanium dioxide accounts for 10% to 25% of the total cost, accounting for more than 90% of the total amount of pigments and fillers, and more than 95% of the total amount of white pigments.

In addition to its physical properties, titanium dioxide also has environmental benefits. As a non-toxic compound, it is safe to use in homes, offices and public places. Coatings formulated with titanium dioxide contain virtually no volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ensuring minimal impact on indoor air quality and human health. Additionally, due to their long-lasting nature, titanium dioxide-infused paints can help create a more sustainable environment by reducing waste and the need for frequent repainting.

In some studies, E171 was given to animals in drinking water without the stabilizers that keep E171 suspended in the liquid. Without stabilizers, E171 can settle and prevent the ingredient from combining with surrounding ingredients.

if you compare the levels—which went as high as 50,000 milligrams/killigrams per day— to what humans are actually exposed to, we're talking orders of magnitude. It was a huge amount, Norbert Kaminski, PhD, a professor of pharmacology & toxicology and director of the Center for Research on Ingredient Safety at Michigan State University told Health.